The Gospel of Matthew Essay

Introduction

The Gospel of Matthew introduces Jesus (Joshua) as the Messiah (HaMashiah or Christ) and the savior of the world. Matthew gives details of Christ’s lineage establishing it back to King David and the Patriarch Abraham. Christ’s life is detailed from his birth to Mary, to his death on the Roman cross. All of the significant events surrounding the birth, life and death of Christ were recorded by Matthew. Some scholars, however, believe that Matthew was not completely responsible for the writings, yet, today it is known as his gospel.

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The Story of Matthew
One of the most important events in the bible was written by Levi Mattheus, also known as Matthew. The Sermon on the Mount by Jesus Christ was described by Matthew in detail as to what was said, who attended, and what was Christ’s message. Matthew, was not regarded as a great man by his Jewish counter parts in the Galilee region of Israel because he was a tax collector. This job was shunned by the populous because it was seen as a deed for someone collaborating with the occupying Roman force, and in turn enriching its coffers with money as well as supporting the despot king Herod. This was happening at the time of Rome’s occupation of Israel in the first century C.E. and the people resented this. It was not uncommon for the various groups within Israel set on liberating their country from the occupiers, to go after fellow Jews who were seen as friendly to the Romans. Hence, Matthew was seen by many as a collaborator and traitor to the Jewish people. It was then, that as Christ was walking by the tax collector’s office, he saw Matthew sitting and working inside. He called on Matthew to come with him, which he did. There, Matthew and others shared a meal with Christ, after which point Christ was asked why he is sitting together with sinners. He answered that it is the sick that need a doctor, not the healthy, and in a way, this came to symbolize Christ’s treatment of all peoples. Jews and Gentiles adhered to his teachings based on salvation and redemption. (Matthew)

Messiah
Matthew’s Gospel puts emphasis on the “fulfillment of the promises of salvation to a particular people, Israel, and also the fulfillment of the universal promise of salvation to all the peoples of the earth.” (Arnold 7) What this symbolizes is that redemption and salvation are only possible if Christ is accepted as the Messiah for the Jewish people. At the time, there were conflicting opinions on Christ’s role in Judaism. The common people loved Christ because he played the role of a good man and a charismatic leader. His actions and words drew many from all corners of the country to see him perform miracles. The Cohenim establishment in Jerusalem felt threatened by him, as well as the Romans. He was a troublemaker for them, because he was about to turn the status quo on its head. His preaching called for fairness and equality, justice and the end to oppression, which made the authorities very uncomfortable. For the Romans, he was trouble because of his undermining their authority and in turn, their financial interests were becoming vulnerable. For the Cohenim, the high priests in Jerusalem, his claims to be the Messiah were becoming too loud and were threatening their positions as authority figures. The priests had one way of conducting business, and this was not to be interfered with. So when Christ began to preach everything that is contrary to the priests, they became uneasy about his presence. Unfortunately, the priests were not as convinced about him as the rest of the populous. The author’s assertion pertaining to the fulfillment of the promise of salvation was directly related to Matthew’s assertion in his gospel that Christ’s teachings come directly from the Jewish Torah. His teachings reaffirmed the Torah as the Holy Book for the Jewish people and Gentiles, he was just going by what it said.

Sermon
The Sermon on the Mount was intended for all of Israel to hear. Christ’s goal was to have the people of Israel accept his teaching, and live their lives accordingly. He was known to be a great healer, which brought people from all over the country to see and hear him preach. The beginning of the sermon, The Setting, takes place on top of a mountain, where Jesus preached to the crowds of Jews waiting to hear his gospel. Matthew’s use of the mountain is explained as the historic use of mountains in Judaism to bring the message of G-d to the people of Israel. In a way, this sermon was there to challenge the Jews to accept the teachings of Christ which came to be a proper interpretation of the Torah. Christ felt that the hypocrites all around are not doing the work of G-d that is supposed to be done, and he elaborated on that. The way to live life and the ways that one should pray had all been misconstrued in Christ’s eyes in order to attain money, power and status. His reiteration that G-d, our father loves all the people of the earth no matter who or what they are, and they should love him back with recognition of his Kingdom in Heaven. (Matthew) Therefore, the life’s reward was to seek the words of G-d and act upon them, meaning do good deeds humbly in your current life, and when you reach Heaven, the Holy Father will reward your deeds.

Mission
Many centuries before Christ, Judaism allowed for missionary work on the part of spreading its gospel, yet by the time Christ’s message was heard by the people, it was not a common occurrence. The Gospel of Matthew changed all that by allowing for the words of Christ to be spread throughout the world to all of its peoples. This is one of the reasons why the gospel spread so quickly throughout the Middle-East and Eastern Africa. In the beginning, however, Christ commanded his twelve disciple to go amongst the lost souls of the Jews in Israel and spread his good word. He commanded them not to go to the gentiles or to the Samaritans, just to the Jews. They were told that there will be hardships ahead during their journey, but their words would not be theirs, but that of the Holy Father, therefore the villagers who accepted the gospel along the way would be saved and redeemed.

Conclusion
The message of Christ as described by Matthew was that of repentance and acceptance as Jesus being the Messiah for the world. The author emphasized salvation for the people as well as the spread of the gospel. This was a necessary step to move Christianity from a local Jewish sect, to a new and blossoming religion that would once rule a large portion of the earth. The only way to convince to populous to accept its teaching, the Gospel pointed out all of the negative things that were wrong in people’s lives, yet made it clear that the hypocrites who command them religiously and in civic matters were living as they wished. It offered the common man salvation in return for the acceptance of Christ as their leader. It preached being good to others and even turning the other cheek to them when the other was slapped. This was a new and radical concept, which did share some similarities with the Torah, but for the most part was in a league of its own. Hence, the Sermon on the Mount, and Christ’s sending his disciples to spread the word, were the building blocks from which Christianity arose to spread the faith to all the peoples of the earth and save them from sin.

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System of Inquiry Essay

Ethical conduct is of paramount importance, especially for an educational organization like EDMC. Having carefully reviewed its Code of Business Ethics and Conduct (hereinafter the Code of Conduct or the Code), I propose the following System of Inquiry for ensuring ethicality and integrity of EDMC employees’ behavior in all work-related situations. Firs of all, the questions with regard to why, how, when, and by whom it is used will be answered. Secondly, possible problems associated with its implementation as well as implications for organizational development will be discussed.

Why

The Code of Conduct was developed in order to ensure compliance with relevant legal regulations as well as maintain “the highest moral, legal, ethical and financial reporting standards” (Code of Business Ethics and Conduct, 2007, p. 7). It was created with the broad goal of enhancing the welfare of all stakeholders dependent on the success of EMDC. The Code should contribute to the realization of EMDC values, such as excellence in education, culture of learning and collaborative decision-making, as well as it vision and mission, which is to meet employers’ needs through producing qualified graduates.

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At the same time, EMDC aims at profitable growth. At a first glance, pursuance of broad social agendas and emphasis on ethics is counterproductive, since competition in the business world is stiff and requires swift and determined action that sometimes has to be taken without regard for or even in spite of ethical considerations. However, experience has shown that “ethics and profits are not mutually exclusive in principle and in practice” (Cooke, 1991, p. 251). Moreover, Somers (2001) argues that “firms with codes of ethics might be more concerned with profitability than are firms without such codes” (p. 194).

Thus, there are good reasons why EDMC designates each of its employees as “a trustee of our reputation as a legally and ethically responsible member of the community in which we conduct our business” (Code of Business Ethics and Conduct, 2007, p. 21). Every EMDC manager and officer is seen as representing their company in all business situations. In such a case, ethical behavior of each individual employee becomes the foundation of the company’s public image.

How
EDMC has established a clear framework for resolving ethical issues. It has created Corporate Compliance Website and Hotline where employees can receive all the necessary information. Employees are encouraged to ask questions about the Code’s policies and procedures in order to understand the overall intent of the Code as well as specific policies. Corporate Human Resources Department oversees the Code’s implementation, with the assistance of Law Department and Internal Audit Department. All EMDC employees have to sign the appendix to the Code titled “Code of Business Ethics and Conduct Acknowledgement” where they ascertain that they have read and understood the document.

When
All employees of EMDC have to observe the Code in their daily interactions with internal and external stakeholders. In case a suspicion of violations of the Code exists, employees are encouraged to report such suspicions on the conditions of anonymity; any form of retaliation against such a person is not tolerated by EMDC.

Who
One of the main features of an effective Code of Conduct is its applicability to all employees in all work-related situations, be it a receptionist or senior manager. Only in such a case the organization of work practices will be perceived as fair by everyone, and all workers will develop strong alignment with organization’s vision, mission and ethics. Somers (2001) observes that “the highest levels of commitment were observed in those organizations with codes of ethics” (p. 194). In order to ensure such commitment, EMDC specifies that the Code “applies equally to EDMC directors as well as employees at all levels” (Code of Business Ethics and Conduct, 2007, p. 7).

Problems of Implementation
Any change in any organization is likely to meet resistance. Even if in the long run a Code of Conduct turns out to be a development welcomed by everyone, a lot of work is required from senior management at the initial stages of its implementation. Senior management should first of all communicate the changes openly and effectively: in a situation like this, they “should meet with all managers and staff to explain reasons for the change, how it generally will be carried out and where others can go for additional information” (McNamara, 1999, “How is organization-wide change best carried out?”, para. 2). It is true that “communicating with employees during times of change -- and recognizing them as primary stakeholders -- is critical to an organization's success and survival” (Gillis, 2004, p. 30).

Secondly, senior managers should become leaders by example in implementing the Code of Conduct. They should refer to it in their decisions and actively apply it to the resolution of problems which arise. In other words, senior managers should “share their perspective and be open” (Haneberg, 2007, pt. 2). However, EMDC delegates the responsibility for implementing the Code to all employees if the company: all “officers and managers are responsible for communicating and implementing the policies contained in the Code within their specific areas of supervisory responsibility” (Code of Business Ethics and Conduct, 2007, p. 7).

Implications for Organizational Development
It is not counterintuitive to suggest that ethical organizations are more successful than those which have not elaborated on their own Code of Conduct, although this statement might be hard to support by empirical findings. Ethical organizations encounter lesser problems in the process of establishing lasting and productive relations with all concerned stakeholders, such as customers, suppliers, regulatory authorities, and local community. A certain uniformity of work practices allows external clients as well as employees themselves to expect the same approach to decision-making and problem-solving in different situations.

The term EMDC itself employs is “ethical risk”. As Cooke (1991) notes, “any firm that creates an internal environment that either discourages ethical behavior or encourages unethical behavior is at risk” (p. 251). Thus, ethical risk should be analyzed and handled in the same manner as other types of risks, the only difference being that firms have more control over their internal environment than external environment. Promoting observance of a codified set of ethical rules is the first step towards eliminating ethical risk, and a culture of honesty and accountability is conducive to organizational success.

Trevino, Butterfield and McCabe (1998) stress the importance of two factors that have potential to shape employees’ behaviors and attitudes: ethical climate and ethical culture. The notion of ethical culture has been briefly discussed above, while the concept of ethical climate merits further reflection. Cullen, Parboteeah and Victor (2003) suggest nine types of ethical climate organizations can have, along three axis of analysis (egoistic, benevolent and principled) and three loci of analysis (individual, local, and cosmopolitan): egoistic-individual climate (focus on self-interest), egoistic-local climate (focus on company interest), egoistic-cosmopolitan climate (focus on efficiency), benevolent-individual climate (focus on welfare of individuals), benevolent-local climate (focus on welfare of groups inside the organization), benevolent-cosmopolitan climate (focus on welfare of external stakeholders), principled-individual climate (focus on personal morals), principled-local climate (focus on organizational rules and regulations), and principled-cosmopolitan climate (focus on external laws and codes).

EMDC Code can be seen as a promoting combination of several typologies of ethical climate. On the one hand, the emphasis is on complying with legal regulations (principled-cosmopolitan type). Simultaneously, the mission of EMDC is to promote the welfare of all stakeholders it is dealing with (benevolent-cosmopolitan climate). Finally, EMDC recognizes that there are no universal answers to all ethical dilemmas, therefore it trusts its workers to act in an ethical fashion in accordance with their individual moral codes (principled-individual type). Despite the fact the Code of Conduct cannot be seen as establishing a particular type of climate at EMDC, it is still rather effective in promoting ethical and moral behavior and compliance.

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Essay on Teaching

Teaching in a high-need school in New York poses some very serious challenges for educators. First of all, class sizes in such schools are usually much bigger than the city average. Therefore, the teacher might fail to allocate sufficient amount of time and attention to individual students. It is an absolute must to maintain strict class discipline to avoid disruptions of learning process which can happen frequently in large groups of adolescents. In order to do that, the teacher should be a visionary leader and command respect with his or her exceptional personal and professional qualities.

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A set of issues in a high-need school can be caused by the fact that students come from diverse ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds, including underprivileged families. Problems driven by jealousy or hatred can extend far beyond the classroom.

Therefore, it is crucial to establish a relationship of trust between students and school staff – including teachers, counselors and administrators – so that teenagers would feel comfortable approaching them about problems that often plague neighborhoods where high-need schools are located. These problems include bullying, arms, small weapons and underage sex. Since teacher turnover rate in such schools is usually very high, students do not have time to establish such a relationship with their educators. Therefore, a teacher intent on working in a high-need school should be first of all committed to stay there for a time long enough to make a change. If school staff assists students in resolving their personal difficulties and interpersonal conflicts, dropout rate can be decreased, and an atmosphere more propitious to learning can be established.

Another barrier to effective teaching in high-need schools is inadequate supply of study materials. While schools in more well-off parts of the city are equipped with latest technology, students attending educational institutions in poorer districts might not be able to afford even the basic set of books and stationary. As a teacher, there are two possible ways to ameliorate the situation. First of all, school staff should try to attract sponsorship and charitable donations – in cash or inkind contributions – to provide adequate teaching materials to all students. Secondly, teachers should encourage sharing of study materials among students. The teacher can divide the class in small groups for working with a particular book or equipment on a rotating basis, so all students get to do a particular exercise even if there is not enough study materials for all.

The main message emanating from a teacher in a high-need school should be focused on the importance of education for future career and personal advancement. Frequently, education is the only means of breaking the circle of poverty many families find themselves in. A teacher in such a school should be psychologically prepared to handle a lot of adversity from the side of students and witness a lot of human misery. But this is what makes this job so honorable and personally fulfilling: helping students to make a radical change in their lives and pursue a better future is a great mission in life.

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Essay on Fraud

As Overson (2009) informs, the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners defines occupational fraud as “[t]he use of one’s occupation for personal enrichment through the deliberate misuse or misapplication of the employing organization’s resources or assets” (para. 2). Typical examples of employee fraud are asset misappropriation or fake statements of financial or non-financial nature. Employee abuse can be explained by drawing a parallel with misuse of office, which is defined as “using government property against its intended purpose, not necessarily for personal gain” (Regional Anti-Corruption Initiative, 2009, “Misuse of Office”). Following this logic, occupational abuse can be construed as using property of the employer in a way not authorized by him or her (or by chief executive/board of trustees in case of a corporation). In literature, there is a very weak differentiation of the two concepts.

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However, fraud necessarily involves deception, while abuse can occur without such element. A manager is always obliged to report occupational fraud, since fraud violates both the written and psychological contract between the worker and company. In some instances, it even violates the law. For example, in case of larceny or document forgery, a failure to report makes the manager an accomplice in this offence, which in turn might lead to administrative or even criminal responsibility for both the employee and manager. While reporting occupational fraud might lead to conflict and uncomfortable investigation, it is a must to inform relevant authorities – both within and beyond the organization – about such cases.

References
Overson, R. (2009). “Employee Occupational Fraud and Abuse: A Guide for Business Owners and Managers.” Retrieved November 21, 2009, from http://searchfunds.com/?p=121
Regional Anti-Corruption Initiative. (2009). “Glossary.” Retrieved November 21, 2009, from http://www.rai-see.org/glossary-.html?func=view&catid=82&term=Misuse+of+office


The article (Wessling, 2008) discusses the underlying principles of evidence-based practice (EBP), its potential for bridging health disparities among diverse populations, and case studies of its effective implementation and application. Citing a number of high-profile nursing professors, the article tries to answer the question about what EBP essentially is and how it is different from other paradigms of care. EBP can be best defined as integration of relevant research data with the nurse’s clinical expertise and the patient’s needs and preferences. Perusing academic literature is an integral part of finding relevant research data, yet it can be a challenging task. The article suggests using the PICO framework for formulating a clinical question, where P stands for Patient, Population, Problem, I for Intervention, C for comparison, and O for Outcome.

After formulating the clinical question, the algorithm which should be followed starts with looking for the best research studies available, after which a quick critical appraisal of the findings should be made and evidence integrated with clinical expertise and the patient’s condition. Evaluating the outcome with a view to making changes to current practices is the final stage of this process. The article proceeds with examining how EBP can benefit minority patients. At present, most clinical studies are done on white males, which precludes their findings from being comprehensive. The article also offers several links to EBP resources and outlines several models of how EBP can be implemented, e.g. by sharing resources online or instituting a journal club.

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Self-Awareness and Empathy Essay

INTRODUCTION

Research in the field of empathy development establishes a parallel between processes of self-awareness and empathy formation. As a result, acquiring a better comprehension of the existing relationships between the latter processes is integral in understanding not only standard but also atypical development in the studied sphere. Consequently, this article re-examines “theoretical and empirical considerations of self and empathy development during infancy…in both normal and atypical development” and brings to attention “practical implications in the form of concrete developmental interventions” (p. 2).

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METHOD
Earlier research, presenting interrelatedness between developments of the empathetic concern and the sense of self by infants during two first years of life, was used as the background information. Basing on the latter, the authors proposed unambiguous interventions, aimed at enhancing “self-concept and empathetic concern” formation processes of infants developing typically as well as children with autistic complications (p. 1).

RESULTS
The Interventions, presented by the authors, stressed the importance and noted the variety of activities to be conducted with infant participation and aiming at enhancement of self-development and “ability to relate to others in an empathic fashion” (p. 9). Additionally, active role of a care-giver (particularly in the case of the autistic infants), assisting the children in constructive discovery of the surrounding world through formulating of empathetic and “structured environment, one that promotes continuous learning and progress”, was noted (p. 9).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
It is suggested that future continuation of the study, with both disabled and normal children, will contribute to the understanding of basic development and “empirically based interventions” to influence formation of infants’ healthy self-understanding and empathic capacities (p. 12).

ABSTRACT
It is commonly believed that increasing ability to relate to those around is a distinct and essential feature characterizing typical infant development. Unambiguous form of connection to others is empathy. The children in their early years undertake various expressions of the latter. Moreover, occurrence and the complexity of empathic reactions alter as the normally developing children become older. The notion, prevailing in the field, suggests a correlation and existence of a parallel between the formation of self-awareness and development of the empathetic responses. Furthermore, the latter occur as responses to distressful conditions. Various empirical explorations have confirmed the connection between the two development processes. Further comprehension of the relation between forming sense of the self and developing empathy, has an exceptionally important meaning not only a as a contribution to the cases of normal infant development, but also that of atypical development. Children born with the autistic syndrome tend to face “great difficulty in developing both physical and representational sense of self” and as well as lack of “empathic capacity” (p. 1). Consequently, a number of interventions, aiming at providing stronger incentive for development of the self-awareness and, parallel to it, empathic response as reaction to distress of others, are presented. Additionally, the latter are formulated as universal formulas, with application being possible for children developing on the normal pace as well as infants with autistic syndrome.

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Essay on Dolphins in the Navy

Dolphins are marine mammals which inhabit mild and temperate seas worldwide (Britannica). They are known for their intelligence and unique method of communication, using sounds and ultrasonic pulses to associate with their kind. This system of echolocation makes them suitable to aid marines in the location of underwater mines (MMP website). The specific characteristics of dolphins and other marine animals has lead to the development of the Marine Mammal Program, which is a navy research, training and employment project for the use of mammals in the marine forces. As any other interaction which implies use of animals for human needs, the role of dolphins in the navy is a disputed issue with many viewpoints.

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The use of dolphins for military purposes was pioneered by engineer and physicist James Fitzgerald. Fitzgerald formulated the idea of using dolphins in warfare based on his knowledge of the mammals’ sonar. He went on to conduct research with the support of the CIA. Via his Morse code – like method of communication with the animals, he discovered that there was indeed reason to believe that they could be trained for naval use. Their intelligence, trainability, and swimming precision combined with their method of sonar communication would make them perfect helpers to the marine operations. As a result of the findings of the researcher, dolphins were already being used in 1965 (Holley, 2006).

Today the use of dolphins for naval purposes is a developed practice based on experience and scientific knowledge. The Marine Mammal Program has incorporated the use of a number of species; however its primary “helpers” are bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). This species is the one we think of when we hear the name dolphin. It possesses all the necessary characteristics required for training and use by the marines. Bottle nose dolphins are especially playful and inhabit the waters of Hawaii which makes them both accessible and easy to work with (Gardner).

The dolphins enrolled in the program are involved in protecting ports and assets from swimmer attack, finding and attaching recovery hardware to targets, and locating potentially dangerous sea mines. (MMP website) The sonar of dolphins helps to track objects in the water and is much more effective and useful than any other man-made sonar device. The animals are usually trained to perform specific tasks, dubbed systems, but may be taught to carry out various activities. Human trainers usually work alongside the dolphins and ensure that the tasks are being carried out effectively.

The use of marine mammals in navy operations has caused its share of controversy and raised a number of questions as to the humaneness of these practices. The first and foremost concern about the use of marine mammals is that they are in fact wild animals. In the website of the MMP dolphins and sea lions are compared to search dogs. Although this comparison may reflect the duties and usefulness of the animals, it misses a crucial point, dogs and dolphins are hardly of the same background. Many adversaries of the idea ask whether it is ethical to train wild animals for human purposes. Do we as humans have the right to take animals out of their natural habitat in order to convert them into tools for our advantage and if so what happens when a surplus of animals arises? Such a problem arose in the after the cold war, when were cutbacks to the program. A reintroduction program was too costly and the marines had to care for the redundant animals until their death. (PBS Frontline. The Story of Navy Dolphins)

Another ethical matter arising from the use of dolphins in the navy is their physical well-being. The mine tracking performed by bottle noses is not a threat, because the animals are not big enough to activate the devices, but the employment of animals in hazardous situations as well as the way in which they are trained are both sensitive issues. Although it is claimed that the training practices used when preparing dolphins for their duties are harmless, animal right protectionists are concerned about what goes on behind closed doors. There is no way of ensuring that no mistreatment of animals goes on during the training, which makes it difficult to support the practice without reservations. 

Physical harm which may come to the animals while fulfilling their duties is another potential danger. Dolphins may die or be injured during war time or in other dangerous situations. The mammals might be more efficient and effective in carrying out the tasks, but this is at the price of putting them in harm’s way. Whether the damage is caused by injury or release of the dolphins in an unsuitable environment, it is equally likely to occur.

In conclusion it may be said that the use of dolphins as help to the navy is a big step in the connection between animals and people. The established system works for the benefit of the marines and is meant to ensure the safety and wellbeing of the animals. Although the utility and efficiency of the marine mammals is undoubted there are many concerns when dealing with animal helpers, and especially with those of wild origin.

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Essay on Intelligence

Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence

For the purposes of this assignment, article titled “Malnutrition, Poverty and Intellectual Development” by Larry Brown, director of the Center on Hunger, Poverty and Nutrition Policy at Tufts University, and Ernesto Pollitt, professor of human development in the department of pediatrics at the School of Medicine at the University of California, was selected. The article presents research into environmental influences on intelligence and argues that their importance has been underestimated to date. During the previous decades, the link between poor cognitive development and malnutrition was recognized, yet inadequate diet was considered to cause permanent structural damage to the brain. Brown & Pollitt (1996) call this view “the main-effect model” and criticize it as simplistic. Adherents of this outdated view believe malnutrition can produce harmful irreversible effects on children’s brain during the first two years of their life, when the brain is being formed. The authors of the article refer to findings which demonstrate that nutrition can have impact on intelligence throughout entire childhood and that negative effects of poor diet in the first two years of life can be reversed.

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One way in which malnutrition can affect intelligence is through its influence on child’s energy levels and peer interactions. By virtue of being less mobile, undernourished children encounter a problem of reduced interaction with other people and with their surroundings. This may in turn affect their cognitive development in a negative way. This was first discovered by Levitsky and Barnes in the 1970s: having studied rodents, they found out that malnourished animals underperformed on tests of mental ability because, lacking energy, they withdrew from contact with their peers and objects in their environment. Furthermore, undernourished children tend to be coddled by their parents, which again prevents them from exploring their surroundings and coping with a variety of attendant learning challenges. Also, factors such as income, education and other aspects of the environment have an effect on children’s intelligence.

To provide empirical evidence for the fact that malnutrition has palpable effects on intelligence, the authors cite the results of a broad-scale eight-year study of children in Guatemala. Children were given two types of nutrition supplement, one with higher protein content, and reported significant health gains. In a follow-up study eleven years later effects of better nutrition on long-term intellectual development were measured. Children who were given nutrition supplements performed better than their peers on literacy, vocabulary and reading comprehension tests, general knowledge exams, arithmetic tests and nonverbal intelligence tests. However, education and economic status, operationalized as house quality, father’s occupation and mother’s education, were discovered to have a moderating effect on the relationship between nutrition and intelligence.

While the article does not call into question the existence of genetic factors influencing intelligence, its main thesis is that environmental factors affect cognitive development in more ways than thought previously. This discovery has numerous practical implications: from nutrition programs in developing countries to initiatives aimed at supporting achievement among underprivileged children in developed countries, many policies are based on recognition that environment plays an important role in intellectual development.

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