Essay on the United Nations Organization

Essay about the United Nations

The United Nations peacekeeping process is aimed to help out countries all over the world with their differences. Countries declare war on another for treaty violations, land ownership and many unreasonable conflicts. On the 31 of July, the Resolution 1312 was adopted by the Security Council. The resolution established the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea known as UNMEE.

The United Nations Charter, chapter 1 articles 1 & 2 aimed to have a peaceful resolution before tensions evolve and the inevitable war becomes the outcome. The United Nations is the peacekeeping president over all the residing countries on this planet. When a country like Ethiopia is having difficulties with another country like Eritrea, Ethiopia will contact the United Nations for advice. The countries then agree on terms and conditions for peace and the conflict is then solved. The United Nation is generally asked upon by a country or organization for help in diffusing conflicts in their country.

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The United Nations Article 1 purpose is to maintain peace and security in the country with the conflict. The United Nations will take effective measures for the removal of the threats to peace. They do this within the principles of justice and international law. The United Nations develop friendly relations between nations and take appropriate measures to strengthen the universal peace. The United Nations tries to achieve in solving international problems of economic, social, cultural or humanitarian character by promoting and encouraging respect for human rights. The United Nation also is for the fundamental freedoms without disrespect to race, sex, language and religion. The United Nation acts as a center for harmonizing and achieving these goals.

The United Nations Article 2 purpose is the organization of its members, in pursuit of the purpose stated in Article 1 and shall act in accordance with the following problem solvers. The organization is based on the principle of sovereign equality of all its members. All members with rights and benefits shall fulfill the obligations granted to them in this charter. All the members shall settle disputes by peaceful intentions and not endanger international peace, security and justice. All members shall reduce problems with other countries without disputes that could erupt in breaching the peace. All the members shall give the United Nation every assistance due with the charter and refrain from giving any one country help against the United Nations or any other countries. These countries that are members shall act in accordance with the charter.

Nothing in this chapter shall authorize the intervention into the domestic problems and will not be prejudice to there application of enforcement under chapter eight. The United Nations follows these rules and regulations as well as other chapters in hope to keep the peace. These rules and regulations were cited from the United Nations Charter and the United Nation follows these rules religiously without error.

The Ethiopian and Eritrea governments have been at war for two years up until this date. The Organization of Africans (OAU) held talks in Algiers form 29 of April to 5 of May 2000. The talks were aimed at assisting Ethiopian and Eritrean governments in an implementation plan that would lead to peaceful resolution to the conflict, which began 6 of May 1998.The fighting resumed on 12 of May 2000. Resolution 1297 adopted by the Security Council later that day, called for reconvening of peace talk on the basis of the framework agreement facilitated by the OAU. The Security Council adopted resolution 1298 on 17 of May called on the stop of sales of arms to Ethiopian and Eritrea. By the end of the first week Ethiopia have made advances on the western front.

The two governments signed the “Cessation of the Hostilities” on 18 of June. On the 30 of June the United Nations general received an issue of the report asking the United Nations to establish the peacekeeping operation. A United Nations Reconnaissance mission was sent to the region on 4-18 of July. Mission representatives met with the members of the OAU and the parties discussed for the United Nations assistance with the agreement. The mission report was sent to the security general. Over the past two years these countries have been fighting and they have now just contacted the United Nation to establish peace. Then they started three phases of resolution on 31 of July. Then the cease fire came about between the two countries.

The United Nations did a little more than establishing the cease fire. The UNMEE then started establishing resolutions; one of the first resolutions was to deploy 4,200 troops, including 220 military observers into Ethiopia and Eritrea. The UNMEE monitors hostilities between the sides, the number of troops and their positions taken after February 6, 1999. The UNMEE made sure the forces were twenty-five kilometers from each other. Then UNMEE monitored the Temporary Security Zone to assist ensuring compliance with the Agreement signed 18 of June. A special representative appointed by the Security General authorizes all missions within the Temporary Security Zone. The special representative keeps close contact with the political and military leaders from both sides as well as the OAU and United Nations country teams. The special representatives will have many other branches of military help, to ensure peace. The UNMEE military observers will investigate incidents, challenges inspections, conducts patrols by land and air and monitor the Temporary Security Zone.

There are three phases to the UNMEE peacekeeping operations to go through. The first phase was to send two military liaison officers to both capitols in July. Offices were set up in Asmara, Addis and the UNMEE established contact with the OAU unit. In the second phase up to 100 military observers will be deployed. The observers will contact with parties in the field, and visit military headquarters and verify the cessation of hostilities. The third phase includes 220 military observers, three infantry battalions and necessary support units will be deployed to western, central and eastern parts of the Temporary Security Zone.

The United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea held meetings almost monthly to give the status of the war in Ethiopia and Eritrea. Over the next two years UNMEE held these meetings with minor problems occurring during this time. On Monday, 25 of February 2002 the council concluded the mission to Ethiopia and Eritrea. The ambassador stated, “The implementation phase ahead should move forward expeditiously through close cooperation between the parties, the Boundary Commission and the UNMEE with a view to further improve the lives of the people.” The ambassador further stated “The process should proceed in an orderly manner and maintain stability in the effected areas.” (1) The ambassador feels comfortable with the situation being under control. The ambassador Kolby held a ceremony on the bridge between the two countries. Kolby stated, “This is a physical bridge, but there is also another bridge, and this bridge is between minds.”(1) Kolby hopes that these two great countries can build this bridge and a common future.

The United Nations travels all over the world solving problems and keeping peace between the neighboring countries. In this case they traveled over to Ethiopia and Eritrea solving there disagreement successfully with minor casualties. Peace was inevitable as soon as the United Nations was involved. Within three months the United Nations stopped the fighting and had every thing silenced by February 2002. The United Nation followed the charter to peace successfully with no casualties to their side. The United Nations went into a troubled area with a plan of attack; they executed it successfully and are now resolving other problems around the world.

The United Nations I feel went into Ethiopia and Eritrea with a plan and when it came down to it they handled everything they were asked to do and made sure their presence was felt. The United Nations charter can come in handy when you are trying to solve problems in a foreign country. I do not understand why the OAU took so long to contact the United Nations. It is the United Nations job is to be the peacekeeper of the land and all situations must go through them for their approval. These two poor countries are fighting over nonsense and they should be worried about more important things. There country has little to no food resource and they have little income. These two countries should be working on making money, improving their economy and should worry about this situation later. They spend more money on weapons then they do on the food for the starving. These two countries felt shedding blood was more important so there is no changing their mind.

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Essay on Utopia

The perception of utopia, a visionary system of political or social perfection, and dystopia, a place where the condition of life is extremely ghastly as from deprivation or oppression or terror, are the converse of each other. In a utopia, absolute happiness is achieved. Utopian society is a perfect society that has perfect regulation for people to live in. Happiness is common amongst the people and there is nothing to be feared. A Dystopia is a utopia tainted with corruption and filled with confusion and madness. Hitler had attempted to create a utopia. Germany at the time had become a perfect Dystopia, because Hitler had attempted to achieve the genocide of the “lesser” race.

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I believe the state of a utopian society will never be achieved by humans. It is impossible because even if humans do arrive at this state, more “perfect” ideals will come into existence thus making the “Utopia” obsolete. Before the new ideals emerge, most people thought that there could be nothing better. Inevitably the new ideals will replace the old ones, ones that were thought to be the ultimate. This process will repeat itself indefinitely, proving that a utopian society will never exist.

Utopia can never be reached also because the meaning of Utopia is different for everyone. One’s description of a Utopia might come in conflict with another. If there are conflicts between the descriptions of Utopia, then Utopia does not exist. This is also where Dystopia comes into existence. If we were to state one universal definition of Utopia, Dystopia will always be formed within, ironically making the word Utopia contradict its own meaning.

However, I do believe that thinking about Utopia is happiness itself. When a person has his/her own clear description of their Utopia, he/she will have a hope in life and a place where he/she can reside to in their mind when feeling depressed or disheartened.

As we explore deeper into the meaning of Utopia, we become more confused on what it is because Utopia is what each individual defines it to be. A word that has several meanings contrary to one another has no meaning at all. We must remember that Utopia is non-existant, and not get lost within our mind.

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Essay on Victorian Era

The Victorian period was filled with many different types of thoughts and ideas. The literature of the period rose ideas never heard before. Also, the reform and industrial revolution changed the way that people thought. Several scientific discoveries also made Victorians question their own beliefs. The intriguing Victorian period had a different taste of literature and also went through a reform of classes and several technological advances to make it an extremely unique period in time.

Victorian readers had varied tastes in literature. Serious readers chose books on religion and other informative topics other than fiction, while less-than-serious readers chose books that were thrillers or in the violent category (Swisher 188). The writers of this time used a story-telling technique and they used symbols in their longer stories to help the reader better understand their point. The writers of this period developed the first psychological novels and they also used arguments, political ideas, and gave moral advice in their works to further persuade the readers. Also, many different changes in this time period were used in literature.

Changes in gender roles, classes, and values are represented and shown in Victorian literature (Victorian, Swisher 10).

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In the Victorian period, writers and novelists had their own opinions of changes at this time. Writer Thomas Babington Macauley said he liked the industrial revolution because it offered way for individualism and it gave the age of materialism a real advantage. Other writers had their own take on the matter of the industrial revolution. William Morris was a skilled merchant and artisan who worked very hard to make works of art that included pottery and fabrics and he believe the industrial revolution was a waste and that it was just a way to clutter the streets with cheap products. John Ruskin was an art critic who turned to talking about social issues because of the revolution and he thought that good art could only be found in a good moral environment (Victorian, Swisher 15). Thomas Carlyle was a harsh critic that opposed utilitarianism and sympathized with the poor and attacked middle-class hypocrisy. Writers of this time period used machines as the cause and symbol for the decrease of emotional vitality. To them the machine represented progress and progress made people soft and unnatural. It was truly the age of machinery. Victorian non-fiction writers also commented of the social changes of the time. The industrial revolution was a “reliance on machinery” and that “spiritual regeneration” was a must (Victorian, Swisher 14).

The literary form used at this time was one that offered instruction. Victorians looked to poets who could give them stability and purpose, but many poets and few writers withdrew from these social concerns because they felt they were incapable of dealing with confusion of modern life. The poets of this time wanted to write about beauty, but the beauty was nowhere to be found (Victorian, Swisher 17).

Other writers of this time period were the poets and different forms of writing. Alfred Lord Tennyson wrote poems about nature and languished the image of nature as well. Robert Browning had an optimistic view of Christianity and morality was expressed in his works. People read his works and were moved by them (Victorian, Swisher 18). The writing of novelists of this time now lacked confidence and courage and instead relayed the message of tragedy of the time period. In olden times the poems were about problems, romance, and ideas that could be solved or read into (Victorian, Swisher 19). Novelists of the time had a clearer direction than the poets had. They wrote on the topics of society that the poets would hesitate to write on. Their works reflected energy and vitality of the age. This time period witnessed more literary change than any other. However, the novels were untidy and unplanned and lacked beauty. The readers did enjoy the comical, criminal, pathetic, destitute, and wealthy nature of many of the characters. The stories also delved into the class problems and made the arguments between classes comical (Victorian, Swisher 20-21).

The Victorian people were going through major change. New technology made transportation and communication faster and cheaper. Also, the development of railroads and steamboats made shipping goods and materials faster and more efficient so world trade was also increasing at this time (Swisher 58-59). Charles Darwin also introduced a new idea to this Victorian age. He published a book called The Principles of Geology that said layers of rock that were below the earth dated back to October 23, 4004 B.C and this confused many religious Victorians because it questioned whether or not God truly existed (Swisher 15-16). Darwin also explained the law of natural selection that stated the weaker species die out and stronger ones survive. This also brought upon confusion to the Victorians (Swisher 18). The responses given back to Darwin for his discovery were that many people simply denied that the information was true and other changed their emphasis on religion to have it all make sense. Other Victorians chose to go to agnosticism and others were still just confused about what was real and what was religion (Swisher 19).

The health and medicine of this time were very poor. Victorians had no knowledge that bacteria were the cause of the diseases they had. They had no cures for the ailments either. They just fed their patients well and kept them comfortable. Finally though, they realized that the cleaner the air, water, and living conditions the patients had; the more they recuperated. A medical discovery was noticed in this period of time ( Swisher 83).

Class values were of much importance at this time. Victorians believed that the poor were improvident because they spent any money they did gain on drinks and gambling. Others said that God had put poor people in their place and that they should not be fooled around with. (Poverty 3). The population of this time was growing and it was considerably due to people wanting employment and jobs to make money and was also due to the industrial revolution (Poverty 1). The Victorians were confident people who sought knowledge and adventurous situations. With all the new ideas and quests, the aristocracy lost their power and the middle class gained many privileges and loads of wealth. The working lives of everyone had changed little though (Swisher 50).

With the rise of the industrial age all people were working at low wages. Women, men and children lived in slums and this issue was talked about openly among the people of this time (Maurois 14). Critic John Morley said that England at this time was like “a paradise for the well to do, a purgatory for the able, and a hell for the poor (Victorian, Swisher 12).” This industrial time impoverished a ton of people and brought even more wealth to the middle class and the already wealthy (Maurois 13). The middle class liked to show their money and they soon became the epitome of standards and good taste. They also values what was decorative and like huge homes, heavy furniture, and lots of knickknacks. Men wore top hats and women had long beautiful skirts and this really showed their wealth. The middle class used status to make national policy as well. The middle class used their wealth to be able to vote by the time of the middle of the industrial revolution (Swisher 13). The upper classes actually lost some of their wealth due to the middle class upraise. By the time of the mid-nineteenth century, the middle class held an extremely large amount of the nations wealth (Swisher 12 ).

Victorian values were more comprehensive than American values of today. Values of this time included and held high the family, hard work, cleanliness, self-respect, patriotism, neighborliness, thriftiness, and self-reliance. The values identified with an England of a century ago, but have no relevance to today’s England in its virtues or values ( Himmelfarb 5). This period of time also gave another side to moral reformation. They eventually established relief for the poor and incapable ( Himmelfarb 7). The expression of having good manners and morals is a Victorian expression and the Victorian motto was that manners made the man at that time
( Himmelfarb 21). Values do not have to be virtues. Values can be beliefs, opinions, attitudes, feelings, habits, or prejudices (Himmelfarb 12). Another moral mentioned at this time was the reference to sex. The mention of sex or scandal; whether it was real or fake, meant social rejection to those who spoke about it. Victorians believes that too much pleasure or entertainment was wicked and that people were to show integrity, frugality, self-reliance, and temperance. Victorians inherited their values from the Puritans and they always preached about being morally strict. Home to them was an honorable and sacred place (Victorian, Swisher 13).

Philosophers, writers, economists, and everyday people of the Victorian period knew they were living with major social and economic issues. The value of literature, class value, and technology in the Victorian era were of great significance and affected this period of time in drastic ways.

The Victorian time era was always changed and was the time period for the birth of machinery and class uprising which makes it such an ever changing and unique period of time.

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Essay on Dracula by Bram Stoker

Bram Stoker's "Dracula" Essay

The Classic Gothic Bram Stoker’s Dracula is a true Gothic novel that belongs on any gothic literature course. Focusing in on the recurring themes, characters and settings used throughout the novel one sees how Dracula has set the standard for Gothic literature today.

The theme in Dracula is that classic Gothic theme of the epic battle of good versus evil. In this novel this is expressed in a very direct way, there is never any question as to who is right and who is wrong. As it can be clearly seen the protagonists on the side of good have many endearing qualities while the antagonists on the side of evil have a pact with Lucifer and are of the purest evil.

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The main antagonist in this story, Dracula, has no redeeming qualities whatsoever and his thoughts or emotions are never revealed to us. Dracula never writes a journal or a log as the other characters do so he is never humanized and is always seen as an evil creature with wicked and inhumane motives. Furthermore, Dracula never delivers a final statement before his death to rationalize his actions. Unlike the final scene in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, where Frankenstein’s monster delivers a final statement of intent, Dracula dies quietly and we are left guessing as to the motives and drives that were responsible for his actions. (One speculates as to whether Stoker omitted this final statement purposely or if he was pushed by other concerns that forced him to end the novel hurriedly.)

The protagonists on the other hand have many endearing qualities that form an image of humanity that is very positive and good. Throughout the novel the protagonists are constantly performing selfless deeds. Consider how Lord Godalming and Quincy Morris gladly donate their wealth to the cause of the vampire chase even though they no longer had any obligation to do so and act without selfish motive. Consider as well how the four men in the story risk their lives for that of Mina’s. Bram Stoker reveals his attitude towards the nature of Victorian society by making the evil side in this novel very seductive. Even though the side of good is well aware of the harm the evil side can cause, the seductiveness of the evil side tempts our protagonists on many occasions. For example when Van Helsing has trouble bringing himself to stake the three women because of their physical beauty and when Jonathan Harker nearly allows himself to be bitten by one of the women because of how physically attracted he is to her. “I felt in my heart some wicked, burning desire that they would kiss me with those red lips.” Stoker comments on the nature of Victorian society by showing how unacceptable it was to give in to those primal desires. This relates to the struggle between good and evil between our heroes of Victorian society and the devilish vampires.

Vampires are in control of those evil, primal desires in the story and good people like Jonathan Harker and Van Helsing must fight off these desires lest they lose their clean and pure Victorian existences. The characters in Dracula are very Gothic. Dracula is the most important antagonist in the novel. Dracula is a very if not the most interesting Gothic character ever created. He like all vampires casts no shadow and possesses no reflection. Dracula cannot die by the mere passing of time for he is immortal.

Dracula will continue to be immortal as long as he has a supply of human blood to feed on. Dracula possesses the strength of many men and can control the mist with his mind. He can shrink down to the size of elemental dust and has the ability to transform into many different creatures. As well he has the ability to see clearly on the darkest of nights. Dracula in his most common form appears to be a tall thin man with dark hair, red lips and sharp white teeth. While being very cunning Dracula is said to have a child’s brain for he is still discovering what the extent of his powers are. From his actions and speeches you learn that he is centuries old and of the evilest intent. Dracula’s only goal is to drink the blood of the innocent and gain control of larger territories for himself. Not very much can be learned from this character for he does not make a journal or a log of any kind and has very few speeches. Although he is a very important gothic character he is very flat and static showing no growth in any way from beginning to end of the novel. Van Helsing is the shinning light against the dark Gothic evil of Dracula. Van Helsing is the most important protagonist for he is the leader of our heroes and is a moral center throughout the novel. He is an aged man gifted with super human intelligence and incredible foresight. Van Helsing is highly educated in many fields including medicine, religion, psychology and law. Stoker created Van Helsing to be the epitome of the scientific matter-of-fact mind of the nineteenth century. Van Helsing’s only real flaw is the fact that he is socially inept, he is the kind of character who would laugh at a funeral. Van Helsing is a very dynamic character in that he learns and grows at an astonishing rate throughout the novel. An example of this is when he sees the symptoms of Lucy Westenra‘s illness. Van Helsing is very quick to make the connection between loss of blood in Lucy and blood sucking vampires. Most western people of that era could never accept into their minds the existence of vampires, “A year ago which of us would have received such a possibility, in the midst of our scientific, matter of fact nineteenth century?” .

The settings in Dracula are also very Gothic. The entire novel is characterized by eerie, desolate and mysterious settings that are the trademark of all good Gothic literature. The setting surrounding Dracula’s castle is bleak and unforgiving. It is an ancient battlefield sparsely covered with trees and snow. It seems as if the area is always stormy and many wolves inhabit the eerie forests. This uninviting setting is like a mirror into the barren soul of the demon that lives inside it. All Dracula’s homes are old and abandoned. They are dusty, smelly, ill kept and usually infested with spiders and rats. This reflects on Dracula as being very old and unclean. The rising and the setting of the sun govern the characters throughout the story. Dracula rules the night while our heroes rule the day. This is used to contrast the evil of Dracula and the goodness of our heroes. Symbols such as crosses are used throughout to give the impression of the holly battle of good versus evil. Bram Stoker is very meticulous in his attention to every detail, making sure to carefully arrange the dates of all occurrences and giving many visual descriptions. In conclusion Bram Stoker’s Dracula is a classic piece of the Gothic literature and as such deserves its place on any literature course. Due to it’s trademark themes, characters and settings it truly represents the essence of good Gothic fiction.

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Water Conservation Essay Example

Essay about Water Conservation in America

It is in my opinion that if the youth of America do not change their attitudes on water conservation then we will eventually run into serious trouble. The point of view towards water that teenagers have today is that they have an unlimited supply of water and don’t have to worry about it. However, they are very wrong, at the current rate of water consumption, within a reasonable amount of time, the freshwater and groundwater supply will begin to run dry.

Teenagers have no real conception on just how much work it takes to extract water and purify to make drinkable by the public. Nor do they have any idea about just how much water costs to produce.

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I feel that the government, national and state, should take a stand in this dilemma and develop a campaign to try to solve it. Conversely, adults have the same problem. Some adults do not bother to go that extra little step to save water, but rather they use more water because of the simple fact that it is easier. A few ways I believe we can get high school students to conserve water is by taking them to a water plant, put them in a simulation of were they have to ay the water bills and deal with the ongoing water problem in the future, and you could show them a projection of what life would essentially be like in 200 years when all of the ground water is used up and we have to find different methods to gather rain water.

One thing that you could do to help kids understand just how complex the water purification and extraction process is take them to a water plant and explain to them about it. You could tell them how water is purified and cleaned once it is extracted from the ground so they begin to grow a form of respect for water and the people who devote their lives to it. Also, you could explain how long it takes ground water to move, and how if it is all used up then it takes even longer to get water and prices sky rocket.

Another idea for getting high school students to want to conserve water is to show them just how much it is. Put them into a situation as if they were adults and they had to pay a constantly rising water bill, while their kids are asking them for a new car. Then they may realize that by conserving water and getting other people to they may gain in other aspects of their life. You may also use analogies such as, if you use a water conserving shower head instead of a regular one then you would be able to put that money to 3 new shirts, or similar analogies that would make them want to conserve.

The last thing that high schools may try is putting on a demonstration on a computer or similar media, and show them what life would be like without water. Through this they can come to appreciate just how valuable water is to us. We could show them how their grandkids would have to live by buying water bottles just to get fresh water, or never being able to was their cars.

Simply by showing them all of the luxuries that we have today taken away from their kids would make them want to conserve water.

In conclusion, I think that no matter who or how we need to do something drastic about the ongoing problem of water conservation in America. At the current rate of consumption, we are bound to be in trouble within a few hundred years or even sooner. Whether it be taking them to a water plant, putting them in a simulation were they have to deal with the troubles of water and money, or by showing them a projection of what life would be like in a few hundred years when all the water is used up. Some form of action must be taken to solve this problem.

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Essay on Xenophobia

The Merchant of Venice is a romantic play, written around 1597 AD, by William Shakespeare. It is mainly about the beautiful things in life, like love and friendship. However, the play also has a darker side. Firstly, the Venetians in the play are very anti-semitic, they hate the Jewish ethnic group. Moreover, they do not only hate the Jews, they hate everybody that is considered different than themselves.

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Finally, when reading the play it becomes apparent that the Venetians are very hypocritical. What they accuse others of, they very often do themselves. By inserting these three elements in the play, namely antisemitism, xenophobia and hypocrisy, it becomes obvious that Shakespeare is making a plea for tolerance.

The Venetians, the main characters of The Merchant of Venice, are an anti-semitic group of people. This is exemplified by the passage in the play in which the Jew Shylock is talking to the Salarino about his daughter Jessica, who has run away with the Christian Lorenzo. When Shylock refers to Jessica as his own flesh and blood, Salarino replies as follows: “There is more difference between thy flesh and hers than between jet and ivory; more between your bloods than there is between red wine and Rhenish” (3.1.31-33). The fact that Salarino compares Jessica, a former Jew converted to Christianity, to red wine, and Shylock, a Jew, to Rhenish...

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Essay on Mass Media and Racism

Mass Media and Racism Essay

Categorization, the process by which distinct entities are treated as equivalent, is one of the most fundamental and pervasive cognitive activities. It is fundamental because categorization allows us to understand and make predictions about objects and events in our world. The problem of understanding what criteria are used to group together entities in the same category is indeed central in categorization.

Though most works on this topic have proposed that perceptual or structural similarity is the "glue" that binds objects of a same category, some psychologists have claimed that similarity is insufficient to account for the acquisition and use of categories and have proposed more abstract forms of criteria that make categories coherent and give them a kind of homogeneity in terms of the entities that belong to them.

The purpose of this study was to explore Caucasian viewers' identification and misidentification of criminals featured in a newscast. Based on prior research in social cognition, it was predicted that viewers' identification memory would vary as a function of the race of the criminal suspect featured, the race of the foils, and the viewer's endorsement of anti-Black attitudes.

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Perhaps the most striking finding in this study concerned the increased misidentification of African American foils months after participants had viewed a news story featuring a Caucasian suspect. Although misidentification ratings for all foils increased over time, this between-race confusion (i.e., remembering an African American suspect when a Caucasian had been featured) showed the most pronounced change. This finding is consistent with prior studies showing schema consistent distortions in recall of gender-related information (Drabman et al., 1981; Martin & Halverson, 1983). In addition, this finding illustrates the utility of assessing not only immediate reactions to media portrayals, but also reactions that emerge over time. Although many studies concerning media effects understandably rely on measurement of responses that occur during or immediately after viewing, long-term effects of media content presumably require some sort of retention on the part of the viewer. However, retention of media content does not imply accurate retention. Recall involves a process of reconstruction rather than simply retrieval of registered events. Consequently, as this study illustrates, measurement of immediate reactions to media portrayals may differ from recall of such content that occurs at a later time and that may be more likely to reflect viewers' biases in encoding and recall.

One of the most damaging of stereotypes is the one that assumes that Blacks lack ambition and have no aspirations. Once these negative images begin to dominate in the minds of employers and teachers and bureaucrats, how is it possible for Blacks to be viewed as unique individuals filled with aspirations and desires? Racial stereotyping itself engenders conditions which perpetrate the situations that perpetuate the stereotypes. When people who are set up to fail do so, they are then called failures, and when they do not, they must be exceptional. But the reality is that most Blacks are exceptional by that standard. Though set up to fail, most do not. The media, however, most represents the extremes of the spectrum. Getting beyond racism means conscious affirmation of the worth and total uniqueness of each individual. It is a position consistent with our claim for the sanctity of human life.

We all generalize. According to contemporary brain research, we all have the propensity to develop stereotypes and draw on them. Stereotypes develop easily, rigidify surreptitiously, and operate reflexively, providing simple, comfortable, convenient bases for making personal sense of the world. Because generalizations require greater attention, content flexibility, and nuance in application, they do not provide a stereotype's security blanket of permanent, envoi- late, all-encompassing, and perfectly reliable group knowledge. Schools need to face this challenge by helping students learn to understand and use, not abuse, generalizations. So how do we draw the line between stereotypes and legitimate generalizations? When does mass media treatment of a group and its members embody a group stereotype? I suggest a four-stage general model, based on three premises: Media makers recognize that consumers learn multiculturalism from the media; they realize some of this learning takes the form of internalizing stereotypes; and they sometimes draw on those stereotypes to meet what they feel are consumer expectations, in some cases (as common in advertising) manipulating those stereotypes to provoke desired reactions. To illustrate, take the common media image of Italian Americans as often involved in criminal, particularly mob, activity. Few other groups' criminality has been so regularly trumpeted in the mass media. Although this does not mean all media depictions of Italian Americans committing crimes should be considered stereotyping, even non-stereotypical treatment may contribute to stereotype reinforcement.

Stage 1:
Reality. Media treatments of societal groups and their individual members usually have some basis in reality, although it may not reflect the vast majority of that group. Some Jews are skilled in business. Some Muslims are fanatical terrorists. Some Christians are anti-Semitic. Some blacks are on welfare or are good athletes. Some white men can't dunk a basketball. And some Italian Americans have been involved in crime, as have some Americans of most backgrounds. Therefore, the mere making of a few movies or television shows about Italian American criminals or offering news coverage of Italian Americans involved in crime is not compelling evidence of media stereotyping (any more than a few depictions of the other types of individuals just listed).

Stage 2:
Seminal Treatment. Second comes the creation of a seminal, trend-setting, highly influential media depiction of members of a social group, drawing on selected aspects of that group's reality. This might be a major motion picture, a widely watched and broadly discussed TV program or series, widespread news coverage of a single event, or a major story from a single media source, later picked up for broader media dissemination and interstitial commentary.

Such seminal media depictions establish a model for future media depictions of that group, reinvigorate a long-established pattern of depictions, or provide a new variation to the media treatment of that group. This occurred with The Godfather, first as a novel and later as a series of motion pictures. It was certainly not the first media treatment-not even the first movie-about Italian American organized crime. Italian American mob hearings and trials have long fascinated the news media, while movies incorporating Italian American organized crime have been around since the silent era. But The Godfather reinvigorated the theme. Not only did it give renewed impetus to the genre by demonstrating its immense commercial appeal; it also became a model that has remained popular to the present. It added to the American popular lexicon, injecting "an offer you can't refuse" into long-term conversational repartee. Even the film's director, Francis Ford Coppola, became concerned that his runaway hit movie had overly glamorized its young mob don. So in The Godfather: Part II, Coppola emphasized the degeneracy of the new mob leader.

Stage 3: 
Widespread Imitation. In this stage, other media sources imitate the seminal depiction, repeating it with variations. Movies incorporate a repeated pattern of plots, characterizations, and behaviors by members of the target group. Television series become imitative. Other media play up and embellish the seminal story. Why? Because some media makers recognize that audience expectations have been raised, creating a fertile ground to be tilled. With each addition to the media bombardment, the potential grows that media learning will occur as the stereotype becomes reified.

The aftermath of The Godfather illustrated that pattern. After The Godfather came other major films and TV "docudramas" about Italian American organized crime, as well as a slew of minor flicks about or including Italian American gangs. News stories about Italian American crime took on an added flourish. Italian surnames of public figures "gained" an added dimension-somewhat guilty until proven innocent. This momentum has carried to the present. Moreover, the post-Godfather era also witnessed a proliferation of individual Italian American movie and television criminals. In some cases, their ethnicity was integral to the plot. In other cases, however, their ethnicity had no significance for their screen actions, yet media makers saddled generic villains with Italian surnames. Taking advantage of presumed media-based learning, media makers drew upon and manipulated these media-conditioned stereotypes of Italian American criminality.

Stage 4: 
Humor, Parody, and Caricature. Once media makers assume audience learning has occurred, including the Internalizing or reinvigorating of stereotypes, the stage is set for media to derive humor based on that learning. Much of humor, particularly parody and caricature, depends on the establishment of predictable patterns of consumer thinking and reacting to labeled social categories. For that reason media humor provides a useful litmus test for the perceived existence and pervasiveness of stereotypes. Moreover, such humor demonstrates a willingness to draw upon and manipulate those receiver schemas of group knowledge and stereotypes. Those media maker insights into what stereotypes already lurk within consumers enable them to predict how audiences will react to parodies, caricature, or other types of group-based humor.

The release of the mob parody Prizzi's Honor(1985) demonstrated the teaching effectiveness of The Godfather and its clones. This critical and box office hit relied heavily on media maker assumptions about media-honed viewer schemas on Italian Americans and criminality, illustrating their conviction that audiences already had such abundant stereotypes about Italian Americans as criminals and that these could be effectively tweaked. In the past decade, Italian American mob parodies have become a movie and TV staple, notably in the current hit cable-television series, The Sopranos.

Seminal media presentations create, strengthen, or legitimize depiction patterns for different social groups. Because such seminal textbooks usually attempt carefully (if not always delicately) to achieve some aspect of group authenticity, they may not actually be guilty of stereotyping. More important, they establish a model. By relentlessly copying that model, ensuing media makers harden the stereotypical nature of that image, often through mindless, careless, or exploitive repetition.

And so racial stereotyping itself engenders conditions which perpetrate the situations that perpetuate the stereotypes. When people who are set up to fail do so, they are then called failures, and when they don't, they must be exceptional. But the reality is that most Blacks are exceptional by that standard. Though set up to fail, most don't. The media, however, most represents the extremes of the spectrum. We must be Cosby or crooks. The vast majority of upwardly striving, hard-working, honest, good Black folks are not newsworthy. And so as long as the rich array of who we are, in all our colors and experiences, dreams and talents, is not recognized, then we will not get beyond racism. The individuality that is so much at the heart of the American ethos must be accorded to Blacks as well. You, each of us, must challenge away first impressions and seek to know us as individuals. We must engage in common cause and come to some degree of mutual respect. And I do mean mutual respect because we have learned through your distrust of our abilities, to distrust your sincerity. Let your actions prove us wrong. Let a first action be to let the media know that they must seek to represent Blacks in breadth. Study yourselves the privileges of Whiteness. Don't take them for granted. They are true.

Getting beyond racism means conscious affirmation of the worth and total uniqueness of each individual. It is a position consistent with our claim for the sanctity of human life. We cannot claim certain principles and then apply them selectively. Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness for me and mine, not you and yours.

Liberty and justice for me but not for you. In all our wars, Blacks have fought to preserve those principles for all of us, only to have them consistently denied to many if not most of us. Operating by stereotype we function in a state of imperfect knowledge. The only person we can stand in judgment of, or know well, is we. Operating from a willingness to learn from and value everyone we encounter, we can grow beyond racism.

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